**Interviewer:** Thank you for joining us today. Can you start by explaining how Buddhism has undergone a process of Sinicization throughout Chinese history? How has Buddhism absorbed the philosophies of Daoism and Confucianism to ultimately develop into a distinctly Chinese religious and cultural form?

**Zhang Fanglei:** Buddhism originated in ancient India between the 6th and 5th centuries BCE and was introduced to China during the Han Dynasty, marking the beginning of its Sinicization. Renowned Chinese Buddhist scholar Tang Yongtong divided the history of Buddhism’s introduction and its interaction with native Chinese culture into three stages.

In the first stage, when Buddhism first arrived, there was an initial attempt to reconcile its concepts with existing beliefs due to perceived similarities. This stage is often referred to as the phase of “methodology,” where Chinese interpretations of Buddhism were akin to those of local folk practices. Philosophically, Buddhism aligned with the Daoist emphasis on emptiness, while its meditative practices bore resemblances to Daoist breathing techniques.

As we move to the second stage, the deeper spread of Buddhism led to tensions and conflicts as cultural differences became apparent. Confucian scholars criticized Buddhist monks for their ascetic practices, such as shaving their heads and leaving home, which contradicted the Confucian teachings on filial piety and respect for one’s body. The criticisms indicated a significant clash between Buddhism and the core Confucian value of “filial respect.” To help the Chinese understand Buddhist concepts, translators began to use Confucian and Daoist terminology to explain terms like “nirvana” and “emptiness,” which sometimes created misinterpretations and conflicts between the two traditions.

The third stage saw a reconciliation of these ideas, recognizing the real points of harmony between Buddhism and native Chinese philosophies. Although conflicts existed, the broader trend was for Buddhism to strive to adapt itself to the political, economic, and cultural milieu of China. For example, Buddhist literature increasingly sought to align with Confucian values, demonstrating that Buddhism could coexist with the core principles of Chinese culture. Additionally, Buddhism began to understand the importance of aligning with the state, as it recognized the necessity of state support for its practices.

It’s important to note that these stages are not distinctly separate but rather part of an ongoing process of evolution marked by conflict and reconciliation. Chinese monks had a deep familiarity with Confucian and Daoist thought, which naturally influenced their interpretations of Buddhism. Many Buddhist texts that entered China gradually absorbed these cultural elements as well.

**Interviewer:** Since the Sui and Tang dynasties, China has become a crucial hub for the spread of Buddhism. How have historical exchanges contributed to cultural interactions between China and countries like Japan and Korea?

**Zhang Fanglei:** The exchange of culture has been reciprocal rather than one-sided. Buddhism traveled from China to Japan and the Korean Peninsula from as early as the Southern and Northern Dynasties, culminating in organized exchanges during the Tang Dynasty, exemplified by the journey of the monk Jianzhen to Japan.

Historically, most major Buddhist schools in Japan and Korea trace their origins back to China. These schools have significantly influenced local politics, culture, and the arts, impacting fields like calligraphy, architecture, tea culture, and fashion. For instance, during the late Ming period, Zen Master Ingen was invited to Japan and went on to found one of the three primary Zen schools there. Remarkably, the connection between the Huangbo Mountain in Fujian, China, and Japanese Buddhism continues to thrive today.

While China has played a dominant role in this cultural exchange, we also benefited, as we have regained many lost Buddhist texts from Japan and Korea, reinforcing our traditions. Moreover, Buddhism did not just flow into China from India and the West; there was also a reverse flow of ideas. For example, Xuanzang not only translated Buddhist scriptures into Chinese but also brought back Chinese classics like the Dao De Jing to India. Historical evidence shows that “apocryphal scriptures” written by Chinese scholars incorporated local philosophical ideas, which, after reaching the West, were translated back into Chinese.

**Interviewer:** How does the historical integration of Buddhism in China offer insights for contemporary Buddhist cultural exchanges?

**Zhang Fanglei:** Buddhism’s introduction to China during the late Han Dynasty and its continued presence post-2nd century illustrates an ongoing interaction between cultures. This period saw the emergence of diverse and mature cultural practices in both Buddhism and native Chinese philosophy, leading to a dialogue marked by both conflict and synthesis.

The development of Buddhism in China largely unfolded peacefully, aided by its inherent nature of not seeking dominance over other cultures and the inherent inclusiveness of Chinese culture. The fundamental Buddhist principle of the Middle Way became more about embracing inclusivity and harmony after its arrival in China, offering richer insights into cultural interactions.

Even amidst rising tides of nationalism or anti-globalization today, the overall trajectory of globalization remains intact. Peaceful cultural exchanges rely on a harmonious environment, where a shared vision of our interconnected fates fosters cooperation and mutual development.

**Interviewer:** In a rapidly changing world, what can the Buddhist communities in China and abroad contribute to promoting world peace and cultural understanding?

**Zhang Fanglei:** The core Buddhist principle of “dependent origination” emphasizes that all phenomena are interconnected and conditioned rather than independent. This fundamental understanding of coexistence lays the groundwork for fostering a sense of community. Consequently, Buddhism in China transitioned from breaking down barriers to a focus on building up a more inclusive understanding, providing invaluable insights toward constructing a global community.

The directional flow of history is shaped by collective efforts. When we align around the ideals of unity and coexistence, we move closer to a model of development rooted in peace and inclusivity, thereby increasing the potential for achieving a shared destiny for humanity.

Cultural exchange is a powerful force as well. As a form of grassroots dialogue, academic exchanges help establish a theoretical foundation for cultural communities. Historically, the interactions between Buddhism, Confucianism, and Daoism in China, Japan, and Korea produced a collaborative cultural community characterized by unique national traits while still grounded in shared traditions. This East Asian cultural heritage serves as a solid historical basis for contemporary discussions on a shared human fate.